An Examination of General and Specific Motivational Mechanisms Essay

Luc G. Pelletier and Stà ©phanie C. Dion’s report entitled An Examination of General and Specific Motivational Mechanisms for the Relations Between Body Dissatisfaction and Eating Behaviors aims to examine the relationship of body dissatisfaction with eating behaviors through a study of the different models of regulation of eating behaviors used by women. The study mainly uses the Self-Determination Theory (SDT) as a framework for examination of socio-cultural pressures and the `thin-ideal` as factors for body dissatisfaction and, in turn, body dissatisfaction as a cause of eating-related problems like binge eating, dietary restraint, and bulimia. Lastly, the study also looks at two different levels of motivation to explain the differences in the responses of women to socio-cultural pressures regarding body image, which lead to a difference in eating patterns. These two are the general self-determination or a sense of self-determination toward ones life and self-determination towards eating. Negative body image and its causes and effects have been the subject of many studies during the past decade. Due to its popularity as a topic for research, many of its findings are well-known and accepted by society at present. Among these are the role of media, peers, family, puberty and others in reinforcing the thin ideal, the relationship of women’s perceived discrepancies between their body ideal and body image with their satisfaction with their own body and the effect of negative body images to women’s eating habits. However, a review of the existing literature about body image reveals many interesting and sometimes unexpected findings. The first among these is the main basis of this study, which is self-determination. Deci and Ryan’s Self-Determination Theory shows that the level of women’s general self-determination in life may serve as a shield against the effect of the pressure exerted by society for women to be thin. This is interesting because this will show how body-image can be approached as a cyclical issue when joined with the findings on how positive body image can lead to confidence then to a positive self-determination. Second, body image may have an effect on many positive qualities such as attractiveness, success and intelligence. This shows attractiveness as more than just a fixed variable. It is not merely affected by the physical attributes one is born with, but also by how one feels about these physical attributes. Moreover, it emphasizes the gravity of the consequences that either a positive or negative body image may cause. Its affects can extend onto many non-physical aspects of a person’s life. In fact, another research shows that pressures from society to be thin can change individual core beliefs as regards the importance of physical appearance compared with other values. Another interesting finding is that body dissatisfaction may be addressed by either self-reinforcement or by aiming to change one’s appearance. People are more familiar with the second approach, which includes exercising and dieting. However, it is interesting to find that grooming and other forms of self-reinforcement are also used. While these forms of self-reinforcement may have been admitted to be used by people to enhance their self-image, it is not easily identifiable to have a direct correlation to body image. Moreover, this type approach shows a more positive and less destructive way of addressing issues on body image.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Seven hypotheses were tested in the research. They are stated in the article as follows. First, general self-determination will be negatively associated with both socio-cultural pressures about body image and the endorsement of society’s beliefs about thinness and obesity. Second, socio-cultural pressures should be positively linked to the endorsement of society’s beliefs, which, in turn, will positively predict body dissatisfaction. Third, although body dissatisfaction is expected to positively predict both an autonomous and a controlled form of regulation of eating behaviors, it should lead mainly to a controlled regulation of eating. Fourth, the autonomous form of regulation of eating will be positively associated with healthy eating behaviors, whereas the controlled form of regulation will be positively associated with dysfunctional eating behaviors. Fifth, general self-determination should be positively associated with the autonomous form of regulation and negatively associated with the controlled form of regulation. Sixth, the autonomous regulation of eating behaviors will be positively associated with healthy eating behaviors and negatively associated with bulimic symptoms, whereas the controlled regulation of eating behaviors will be positively associated with dysfunctional eating and negatively associated with healthy eating behaviors. Finally, healthy eating behaviors should positively predict psychological adjustment, whereas dysfunctional eating should negatively predict psychological adjustment. These hypotheses aim to test the relationship of general self-determination, body image, body dissatisfaction, forms of regulation of eating behaviors, eating habits and psychological adjustment among each other. Methodology The study was done on 447 female students, ages 16 to 54 from two universities—the University of Ottawa and the Carleton University. Of these students 78.2% are taking undergraduate degrees from the University of Ottawa, 20% are graduate students from the same university, while the remaining 1.2% are enrolled at Carleton University. The researchers adopted several scales and indexes to test its hypotheses. Enumerated in the study are the General Motivation Scale (GMS), Teasing Assessment Scale, Body Dissatisfaction Subscale (EDI-BD), Regulation of Eating Behaviors Scale (REBS), Healthy Eating Habits Scale, Dysfunctional Eating (BULIT-R), Psychological Adjustment Index (PAI), Depressed Mood Scale (CES-D), Self-Esteem Scale (SES) and the Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS). The tests are composed of statements and questions, which the respondents assess using a Likert scale with around five to seven points for rating. The scales are usually divided in several subscales with equal number of items based on the nature of the hypothesis being tested. They have been previously used in other studies and their reliability and validity have been tested. Results and Discussion The study was able to prove all six hypotheses. These hypotheses will be discussed in three groups. These groups are general self-determination and determinants of body dissatisfaction, general self-determination and forms of regulation of eating behaviors and consequences of the forms of regulation of eating behaviors on psychological adjustment. The last group will be divided into the association of autonomous and controlled eating regulation to healthy and dysfunctional eating habits and the relationship of eating behaviors with psychological adjustment. The first discussion group pertains to the first and second hypotheses. Findings show that general self-determination has a positive association with autonomous regulation of eating behaviors, while it has a negative association with controlled regulation of eating. In relation to this, general self-determination has a negative relation with socio-cultural pressures about body image and the endorsement of society’s beliefs about thinness and obesity. On the contrary, socio-cultural pressures about body image and endorsement of society’s beliefs about thinness and obesity have a positive association, while the latter is positively associated with body dissatisfaction. The cause for this result was explained to be that the more women perceived socio-cultural pressures about body image, the more they internalized societal beliefs about thinness and obesity, which causes them to have body dissatisfaction. However, general self-determination allows them to be more motivated to act according to their own values, rather than be pressured socio-cultural messages of thinness. People with general self-determination are more likely to measure self-worth based on personal growth, meaningful relationships and other intrinsic values, rather than by using extrinsic values such as physical attractiveness. The second discussion group relates to the third and fifth hypotheses. It was found that both autonomous and controlled eating behaviors are good motivational mechanisms and have a positive association to body dissatisfaction. However, the association of controlled regulation, which is ÃŽ ² = .74 is stronger than autonomous regulation’s ÃŽ ² = .14. In addition to this, it was found that general self-determination in life caused them to be self-determined in the regulation of their eating behaviors, which is a specific life domain. The third discussion groups relates to the fourth, fifth and sixth hypotheses. As for the fourth and sixth hypotheses, majority of women who are dissatisfied with their body image eat in a restrictive manner due to the motivation to reduce body dissatisfaction caused by internal pressures such as guilt or shame or external pressures such as media and parents about body image and the endorsement of beliefs about thinness and obesity. Controlled regulation has a positive association with dysfunctional eating behaviors and a negative associated with healthy eating behaviors. On the contrary, women with greater self-determination tend to have healthy eating habits because they have less probability of perceiving socio-cultural pressures about body image and internalize societal beliefs about thinness and obesity. Unlike its negative relation with dysfunctional eating behaviors, autonomous regulation has a positive relation to healthy eating behaviors. Lastly, as regards the last hypothesis, positive psychological adjustment are found have a positive connection with healthy eating behaviors. On the contrary, it has a negative relation with dysfunctional eating behaviors. The results of the study suggest that healthy eating behavior may be a necessary condition for global psychological adjustment. These findings may provide new approaches to understanding and treating body image-related issues and eating disorders. Having built the relationship between body dissatisfaction and eating disorders, specialists may focus on increasing self-esteem rather than emphasizing the evils of unhealthy eating habits. They may also begin looking at the motivational perspective introduced in the study and adapt treatment according to what motivates a woman to adopt weight control habits. Summary In summary, the results were interpreted to show that societal pressures and self-determination may be seen as competing factors that determine body dissatisfaction, with societal pressures as the cause for the endorsement of societal beliefs about obesity and thinness, while self-determination as the buffer against it. Both body dissatisfaction and self-determination have an effect on the kind of eating regulation a woman may adopt. This may result to either a healthy or dysfunctional eating habit among women. However, the authors offered an alternative explanation for the results. The explanation is actually a reverse of the second hypotheses. According to the authors, body dissatisfaction may have been the cause for women to endorse society’s belief, rather than the inverse, because such dissatisfaction may lead women to pay more attention socio-cultural pressures about body image.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Several other topics related to this area of research may be examined in the future. First, researchers can look at satisfaction or dissatisfaction caused by the body image formed relative to the body type of the person with whom a subject has constant contact with. Some people may feel less overweight when placed with obese people than when placed with thin people and vice versa. Second, researchers may delve into more deeply into other means women address body dissatisfaction such as exercise, and determine what factors cause women to choose a certain approach. This may also be related to general self-determination such that researchers may examine which between exercising or other means of addressing body dissatisfaction and dieting, or a combination of both, is used by women with different levels of self-determination. Lastly, the present study may also be replicated using different genders, attributes, and means of addressing body dissatisfaction. Very interesting results may arise from the study of gays and lesbians.